Operating System

   

                      Operating System

An operating system, OS being the shorthand, is a program that runs between the user and the hardware of the computer, interpreting. It regulates the extent to which the computer hardware resources can be employed, the Input/Output operations, the user interface as well as it may be useful in the execution of application programs. Here are the key functions and components of an operating system:The following are the operating system functions and parts: https://www.cpmrevenuegate.com/h9rsi6y0z?key=21aa0e4341f192ad30dd42c3370fb8d1

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Key Functions:

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Process Management:

  The involvement of the OS also happens in the creation of process, the scheduling of a process and the termination of it too. It enables several operations to happen simultaneous while ensuring that they will not interfere with each other.

Process management is one of is the tasks of an operating system (OS) that include process creation, scheduling, and destruction. Here’s a detailed overview of process management:The following is a comprehensive guide to process mapping: 

 

 Key Components of Process Management:Process management is defined as the successful approach to organizing the workflows within the certain company: 

 Process Definition: 

 

 A process is a running program; it can be described as the running program plus the current instruction (program counter), and other things that are associated with processes, such as memory and files opened by processes currently. 

 Process States: 

 

 Processes can exist in various states, including:Concentrating on processes, their states could be of the following: 

 New: The process is being exercised. 

 Ready: The process is in Iatch state it means that the process is waiting for the processor to be assigned to It. 

 Running: This is at the moment being implemented. 

 Waiting: This structure is also a register structure and is ready waiting for some such certain event to occur such as the completion of an I/ O operation. 

 Terminated: It has posted an analysis and chart of the relatively small negative change in earnings per share after a long run of increases in core earnings. 

 Process Control Block (PCB): 

 

 Each process is represented by a PCB, which contains important information such as:Each process is associated with a PCB that contains essential information about the process, for instance: 

 Process ID (PID) 

 Process state 

 Program counter 

 CPU registers 

 Memory management information 

 That which may include aspects such as the utilization of the central processing unit, priority that the current process has over the other processes and the like. 

 

 Process Scheduling: 

 

 In so doing, the OS uses the scheduling algorithms in order to decide on which process should be given the CPU at any given time. Common scheduling algorithms include: 

 First-Come, First-Served (FCFS): When the tasks get to the queues and the organizations they are orderly, and in the same manner, the scheduling of the tasks is also by their arrival to the queues only. 

Shortest Job Next (SJN): In this respect, it may be necessary to point out that as the algorithm is preemptive–scheduling, then the process which takes the minimum time for completing its process is to be chosen for the subsequent work. 

 Round Robin (RR): In that all ur processes are given some amount of time to run a process and having done that, processes are swapped cyclically. 

 Priority Scheduling: Schedule of processes have feature of priority level. 

 Inter-Process Communication (IPC): 

 

 At other times one has to call a procedure from another procedure A sub-procedure may be called from the main procedure. IPC mechanisms include: 

 Pipes: It should remain a black box and permit data to flow only from the previous process to the next process. 

 Message Queues: Suggest a form that has the option and facility to both give as well as receive massages. 

 

 Shared Memory: Permits many processes to take place within the same address space but are totally independent of one another. 

 Process Synchronization: 

 

 To avoid conflicts when processes access shared resources, the OS provides synchronization mechanisms, such as:P2: Once more, the OS becomes a mediator since when several processes need to employ the same resource, conflicts are solved through such features as: 

 Mutexes: While creating the architecture decide that one of the shared hardware design is a separate hardware resources which is access by none of the processes at a time. 

 Semaphores: It is used to show between placed process and control admittance of such placed cultures. 

 Process Termination: 

 

 A process can terminate normally if the associated control flow is finished or can be forced out if there are some issues. The OS has to get back resources that where provided to the killed processes. 

 Importance of Process Management: 

 Efficiency: Ensures that the central processing unit is very efficient and-speedy in its operations. 

 Resource Allocation: Is able to manage and allocate resources in as far as processes are concerned. 

 Concurrency: allow many processes to take place at the same time and so enhance the performance of the whole system. 

 Stability: Assures that with one process running it did not affect the other one, the stability of the system and the systems security.

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Memory Management:

  The OS also owns the memory on the computer and also give process a location in the RAM. Besides, it has perfect information about every single byte of memory in a computer as well as about the procedures of swapping files between RAM and disks.

Memory management in an operating system deals with the way in which an OS allocates and supervises the use of computer memory. Its primary objectives are: 

 

 Allocation: Providing instances of memory to processes at any single real time they require it. 

 Tracking: Everything in use and which parts are free in terms of the location of the byte in the available memory space. 

 Swapping: Coordinating the procedure of interchange of information between the active memory or RAM and the hard disk to conserve memory. 

 Protection: To make sure that one process does avoid the usage of the memory that was allocated to another process. 

 Efficiency: Extending the facility of memory to gain the best possible health of system in terms of performance.

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File System Management:

  Increased from the OS to supply the capacity for storing and accessing files in storage media. This has authorisations and authentication of files with the aim of ensuring that data cannot be changed.

File System Management is one of the important units of an operating system that deals with the manner in which the OS accommodates data and deploys the results on storage units. In OS it can be defined as a mechanism that gives a convenient and systematic approach to formulating, reading as well as writing files and directories. Key aspects include: 

 

 File Organization: Describes where and how the files are named and should be retrieved ( e. g shall have a standard filing structure). 

 

 Access Control: Controls the access to the files or their parts and decide who can open the files for reading, writing or execution. 

 

 Storage Allocation: Responsible for the allocation of space for files on the storage medium and space management of the free space. 

 

 File Operations: Supports such operations as creation of new file, opening a file, closing the file, reading from the file, and writing to the file. 

 

 Data Integrity: Makes sure that the data stored is well secured and can be retrieved incase of system crash.

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Device Management:

  The OS in compunction with the use of the device drivers interacts with the hardware devices. It comprises input/output processes, this makes the applications communicates with the hardware devices like printers, disks, and network adapters.

It is the act of organizing the functioning of the attached hardware devices in an operating system. It involves: 

 

 Device Drivers: Software that hold the OS as it talks to the physical devices and translates the OS meant command to the particular device relevant command. 

 

 Device Allocation: Coordination of devices to processes so that it can enable many processes that require the same device to access it independently. 

 

 Input/Output Operations: Control for the input and output requests by the applications, for the communication and exchange of data between devices in the system. 

 

 Device Monitoring: Monitoring the status and performance of the devices under it and recognizing errors as well as managing interrupts on the used devices. 

 

 Device Security: To protect overall system integrity it is possible to allow only signed and authorized processes to have controlled access to some apparatus.

User Interface:

  OS has an interface these can be a text mode it also has the graphical mode that can be used to interact with OS and does a command.

Sometimes the notion of the user interface (UI) of an operating system may be defined as the element of the operating system with which the user can interact during its functioning. It serves the purpose of facilitating interaction between the user and the computer hardware by helping the users in execution of certain jobs, routines, operations and in file management and in provision of an interface for program execution. There are two main types of user interfaces:The user interfaces are of two general types: 

 

 Command-Line Interface (CLI): Gesture and command based text interface; this is texts created based on command formats input by the user. While this interface is more efficient and produces better changes to improved organizations, it demands more rehearsal than other interfaces. 

 

 Graphical User Interface (GUI): A GUI is made of sub sections which are constituted of windows, icons, buttons and menus through which the users communicate with the system. It is for this reason that this interface is easier to use and manipulate and as such more people can use it.

Security and Access Control:

  The OS practices security by regulating the degree of permission granted to the users and passwords to protect resources and information from the wrong hands of wrong persons.

Operating systems security and access control is the approach of keeping an operating system and the part of the operating system and or data away from some users as well as protecting such operating systems in such a way that only some users have the right to perform some functions. Key Components: Authentication: for issuing and the degree of permission to the users/processes to access towards the system. This is usually achieved by a password, biometric or token of some type. Authorization: One must define what sort of activity an authenticated user is permissible to initiate. This will include such accesses as to file and other programs; utilizing of the systems facilities. Access Control Lists (ACLs): A clearly defined list, which proclaim the rights that pertain to individual or group that can use certain resource and the extent of modification they can make. User Accounts and Roles: Systems that has the capability to distinguish between the forms of users which includes the admin, ordinary user on what they are allowed to do and the privileges they have are the ones that we are willing to collaborate with. Encryption: Protecting it by encrypting which after decrypting will bring into light the data for the users it is encrypted for. Auditing and Monitoring: Surveillance of procedures and endeavours of access by individuals to identify violations of security or efforts at unauthorized control.

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Types of Operating Systems:

Batch Operating Systems:

  Feed a number of jobs, where the end user intervention is not required at all.

A Batch Operating System is an Operating System which deals with the jobs in groups of a set number and / or in the form of a batch where the users have no intervention. In this system, jobs with similar requirements are categorized and are done one at a time. Key characteristics include: Job Scheduling: Several jobs are acquired and handled in batches and this helps to reduce time wastage. No User Interaction: Another important thing about batch jobs is that a given batch job will not require any user interaction once it has been launched. Efficient Resource Utilization: Since the jobs are to be grouped, then the system can arrange its utilization of CPU and I/O devices efficiently.  

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Time-Sharing Operating Systems:

  Enable one or several users to borrow a computer and work at the same time.

A Time-Sharing Operating System (TSOS) is the operating system designates granting the use the system resources to several user at a particular time. This is done through a technique of Sung and Song that calls companion processes at a very high rate hence giving each of the users a small amount of the CPU time. This leads to the generation of a feeling that all the users are working with the system concurrently.

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Key Characteristics: Multi-User Support: Many users can be connected to the system, and actually work with the system at the same time. Interactive User Interface: It is one which enable users interact with the system and perform commands on it to get the responses as soon as possible. Efficient Resource Utilization: OS makes sure that the CPU is thoroughly used through that sense that several processes can concurrently be running but for brief periods of time. Scheduling Algorithms: Other forms of operating systems, which also come under time-sharing systems are those operating systems that use scheduling functions to help in exercising control over the processes, including when and how the processes can have access to the various resources.

Distributed Operating Systems:

  Co-ordinate a collection of other computing components and look as if they are all part of one system.

DOS: Distributed Operating System is an operating system that controls a group of separate and independent computers and present it as a single operating system to the users. It facilitates a number of computers to accomplish a common objective by accessing each other and stabilizing work flow across the networks. Key characteristics include: Transparency: Other participants are not aware of the schemes of distribution of certain resources and organizational processes. Scalability: One of the advantages of the system is that it can be expanded by added more computers with little change to the design of the system. Resource Sharing: There are files and printers for example, are specific services that several users will call for processing power for instance. Fault Tolerance: This feature enables the system to wheel on regardless of whether one or several of its accessories are damaged.

Real-Time Operating Systems:

  It was designed for use in application that has mandated processing and response time.

A Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) is an operating system that is to support applications that are of the real-time kind whereby they have to be processed immediately. While in an RTOS not only is the logic result of the input crucial but also the time by which the result is expected. Key Characteristics: Deterministic Behavior: RTOS as mentioned is a real time system therefore one can be sure or tasks are or can be completed at agreed time. Priority Management: Besides the preemptive scheduling the RTOS favor the priority scheduling whereby important activity gets CPU time before the less important one does. Minimal Latency: This minimizes the span of time between the happening of an event and the response that the system later gives to anybody or anything that has interfered with that event. Task Management: Supports synchronised processing, where by many processing can take place simultaneously while establishing how often each process has to occur and for how long. Applications: These are some of the areas where RTOS is used; embedded systems, industrial automation, robotics, telecommunications, automobiles, and medical devices, and almost any application where the timing of an operation is important either in functionality or safety.

Examples:

Windows:

  Operational system that, among others, has been developed to be implemented in personal computers.

Windows OS can therefore be defined as the operating systems associated with the windows OS family that is owned by Microsoft and which finds use to this present day in PCs, tablet computers as well as servers. It has a graphical user interface, it can spawn other applications concurrently and also interface with different application and hardware effectively. In addition, it focuses a large value on compatibility of the user-interface with the other software, and the essential supports in networking & Security all in Windows OS. ### Key Features: 1. **Graphical User Interface (GUI)**: . Graphical interface Windows icons and menus as a form of enabling the users to find their way around easily. 2. **Multitasking**: Allows for several applications to be operative simultaneously. 3. **File Management**: quickoffice. com: accomplishes the functions of file management with the options on managing files and folders included. 4. **Device Support**: This will be determined by the drivers in many hardware devices and can therefore operate on several of them. 5. **Security Features**: It arrives with user account features, permission as well as other security facilities which are inherent within it. ### Popular Versions: - Windows 10 - Windows 11 - Windows Server(depending on whether you’re using a standard Windows system or a server, **Windows Server** respectively).

Today, Windows OS is in use in homes, offices, schools, college, Universities and on almost every computer across the globe.

Linux:

  A Unix like OS that has a preference in the servers and the development environments since it is open source.

Linux in general refers to a Unix based family of operating systems with a core of source code that is published. It is known for its stability, security as well as flexibility and as such, it is widely used in server, desktop and even in embedded systems. ### Key Features: 1. **Open Source**: Any person or any application has the liberty of accessing the source code for viewing, alteration and resharing. 2. **Multiuser and Multitasking**: Multitasking and multiple users are possible with the abilities of operating a multiple number of processes at a given time. 3. **Portability**: Portable: It may be implemented on a wide range of hardware starting from Personal Computers through Mainframes and ending with Super Computers. 4. **Security**: User permissions and security administration are its major security structures that make it ideal of use by most corporations. 5. **Package Management**: Includes package managers in the ease of installation and the management of the software that is used. ### Variants: Linux is available in many flavours, or distros, like Ubuntu, Fedora, CentOS or Debian which is designed depending on the user and the conditions that are met in practice.

macOS:

  Apple operating system or the Op-system designed, manufactured and produced by Apple for its Macintosh computers.

macOS is operating system software utilized in Mac, Computers which has been created by Apple Inc Most individuals consider macOS one of the most reliable, and comprehensive in compatibility to Apple gadgets and applications. macOS is designed on UNIX, it is a stable environment whether for the ordinary user working on graphic designing or an engineer developing applications. ### Key Features: 1. **User Interface**: macOS look more modern and shiny than Linux and it also features a graphical user interface also known as GUI. 2. **Integration**: This is also compatible with other apple products such as icloud, iPhone, and iPad. 3. **Security**: Has terminal security settings that include, Gatekeeper, FileVault augmented with constant updates against Act of Malware and other intrusions. 4. **Software Ecosystem**: Is compatible with any type of computation, business and production, graphics and designing, and development. 5. **Regular Updates**: Apple also released updates that put more choices into the device, increase the pace at which the device processes work and enhance the manner in which the device is operated. In general, it can be stated that macOS raises the utility and speed for the customers, notably the customers of the Apple ecosystem.

Android:

  The Linux based operating system for use in smart phones and tablets.

Android OS is a mobile operating system based on Linux kernel and is developed by Google basically for the touch screen devices such as mobile phones and tablets. Android also has many application programming interfaces that are derived from the applications programing interfaces made available by the Linux kernel Therefore, developers of applications in Android can create and develop distinct applications in Android. 

 

 ### Key Features: 

 

 1. **User Interface**: Android is one of the most versatile and friendly from the point of view of an ordinary user supporting widgets and various screen sizes. 

 

 2. **App Ecosystem**: It is manned by a huge populace of applications that one can download from Google Play Store or the other app stores. 

 

 3. **Multitasking**: Android also provides application compounded, which means that the several applications in the phone can be in use concurrently. 

 

 4. **Notifications**: It possesses a robust notification tab whereby a user is in a position to receive notification from several applications being used. 

 

 5. **Open Source**: The android is an open source system that compels the developers to alter the code and the manufactures are also capable of putting out different versions of the OS. 

 

 ### Usage: 

 

 Android is a mobile operating system that, at the moment, occupies the largest share of the market, and it is implemented in smartphones, tablets, smart watches and glasses, and even Smart TVs.

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